Briefing Papers and ODI Natural Resource Perspectives papers present accessible information on current development issues and are sent to a wide audience of policy makers, researchers and people working in the non-governmental sector.

Potential and challenges of payments for ecosystem services from tropical forests ODI Forestry Briefing 16
This paper summarises current potential and challenges facing the development of payments for ecosystem services (PES) as a means of promoting the sustainable management or conservation of tropical forests, including the challenge of combining equity or poverty reduction objectives with environmental objectives, and the interaction of PES with broader forest sector and ‘extra-sectoral’ policies.
Michael Richards and Michael Jenkins	December 2007
Risk and responsibility in Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation ODI Forestry Briefing 15
Investment in reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) in developing countries relies on the ability to guarantee effective maintenance of forest cover over long timeframes, while also avoiding negative social and environmental repercussions. Given the complex and often unpredictable drivers of deforestation in developing countries, risk reduction is therefore of paramount importance. This paper looks at how REDD transaction mechanisms between buyers and sellers might be established and the implications that risk reduction mechanisms might have for different stakeholders in developing countries. It focuses on the likely implications for the interests and welfare of the forest-dependent poor.
Leo Peskett and Zoe Harkin	December 2007
The implications of carbon financing for pro-poor community forestry ODI Forestry Briefing 14
The emergence of new financing mechanisms associated with the rise of carbon markets brings potential for increased investment in forestry. This paper explores the implications of these mechanisms for community forestry and suggests ways in which such finance may contribute to the pro-poor outcomes of community forestry. The paper also provides an opportunity for those working on the design of carbon financing mechanisms to draw on the experience of community forestry in structuring appropriate benefit systems. The main focus of the discussion is on 'Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation'(REDD).
Cecilia Luttrell, Kate Schreckenberg and Leo Peskett	December 2007
Can standards for voluntary carbon offsets ensure development benefits? ODI Forestry Briefing 13
Increasing concerns about climate change are fuelling growth in the market for carbon offsets. Carbon offsets are purchased by individuals and organisations from schemes that claim to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere. This paper explores how emerging standards covering the voluntary carbon markets can address multiple aims of carbon offsetting and sustainable development and how they might be best designed to bring benefits for developing countries.
Cecilia Luttrell, Leo Peskett and Mari Iwata	July 2007
Biofuels, Agriculture and Poverty Reduction ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 107
The development of biofuels has generated vigorous debate on economic and environmental grounds. Our attention here is on its potential impacts on poverty reduction. The potential is large, whether through employment, wider growth multipliers and energy price effects. But it is also fragile: it will be reduced where feedstock production tends to be large scale, or causes pressure on land access, and its success can be undermined by many of the same policy, regulatory or investment shortcomings as impede agriculture. Whilst some of the factors facilitating, and impacts of, biofuels can be tracked at global level, its distributional impacts are complex, and point to the need for country-by-country analysis of potential poverty impacts.
Leo Peskett, Rachel Slater, Chris Stevens and Annie Dufey	June 2007
Changing aid delivery and the environment ODI Briefing Paper 17
This paper examines how environmental objectives are pursued by donors in a context where aid delivery mechanisms are changing, asking how donor support can best be delivered to meet environmental objectives.
Neil Bird and Lidia Cabral	March 2007
Convergence between Certification and Verification in the drive to Legality Assurance: assessing the pros and cons VERIFOR Briefing Paper 6
This paper examines how new technologies are being introduced as a means to strengthen national forest governance systems, taking the example of Brazil where their uptake is advancing rapidly. Some key elements to consider when contemplating the introduction of new technologies are described.
David Brown and Neil Bird	February 2007
Ownership in relation to the Design of Verification Systems VERIFOR Briefing Paper 5
The paper examines some of the issues around the theme of ownership of verification systems, and the possible strategies for developing ownership.
Cecilia Luttrell	January 2007
Developmental Impacts of Verification Systems in the Forest Sector VERIFOR Briefing Paper 3
Briefing Paper from the VERIFOR Project: Institutional Options for Forest Verification.
Neil Bird and Kate Schreckenberg	2006
Can payments for avoided deforestation to tackle climate change also benefit the poor? ODI Forestry Briefing 12
Avoided deforestation (AD) is a hot topic in climate change circles, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Using financial incentives to reduce rates of deforestation and forest degradation in tropical countries has much to commend it, as deforestation is a major contributor to climate change. It might also offer additional benefits, such as protecting biodiversity, preventing soil erosion and protecting the livelihoods of forest dependent populations. This paper discusses the details of how such incentive schemes may be established and considers some of the issues from the perspective of host countries and the forest dependent poor.
Leo Peskett, David Brown and Cecilia Luttrell	November 2006
Making voluntary carbon markets work better for the poor: the case of forestry offsets ODI Forestry Briefing 11
The volume of private finance flowing through the voluntary carbon market has increased significantly over recent years, with an eight-fold rise from around five million to 43 million dollars between 2004 and 2005 alone (Capoor and Ambrosi 2006). A significant proportion of these funds is destined for the developing world. What is likely to happen to all this money? Will it be used to the benefit of the developing world, providing new opportunities for growth and poverty reduction, or will it be used to satisfy commercial and industrial interests in the north, to the detriment of southern interests?
Leo Peskett, Cecilia Luttrell and David Brown	November 2006
Commercialisation of Non-Timber Forest Products: What Determines Success? ODI Forestry Briefing 10
Commercialisation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been widely promoted as an approach to rural development in tropical forest areas. However, donor investments in the development of NTFP resources have often failed to deliver the expected benefits in terms of poverty alleviation and improved conservation of natural resources. This briefing paper discusses different conceptions of what constitutes successful commercialisation and examines the key factors that influence the outcome of NTFP commercialisation initiatives.
Kate Schreckenberg, Elaine Marshall, Adrian Newton, Dirk Willem te Velde, Jonathan Rushton, Fabrice Edouard	March 2006
Public Goods and Private Rights: the Illegal Logging Debate and the Rights of the Poor ODI Forestry Briefing 9
This briefing paper applies a rights perspective to understanding legal and institutional reform of the tropical forest sector. The sector is characterised by strongly competing interests, and massive differences in the power of stakeholders to influence the application of the law. The regulatory regime governing the sector often discriminates against the poor. This is of particular concern in the context of donor- and industry-led initiatives to combat illegal logging. Upholding legal frameworks which already fail to accommodate local rights could compound injustices. A rights perspective focuses attention on the channels by which the poor can contest and uphold their claims in the face of national and international interests in the forest sector.
David Brown, Adrian Wells, Cecilia Luttrell and Neil Bird	February 2006
Designing Verification Systems for the Timber Trade: learning from International Processes ODI Forestry Briefing 8
This paper explores lessons for verification in the timber trade in the light of the increasing pressure on timber producer states to guarantee the legality of their production on international markets. The need to attest to the legality of traded goods demands a system to verify the authenticity of the claim, and it is with this aspect of timber policy development that the present article is concerned. The requirements for timber verification are placed in the context of diverse experiences of verification in relation to international treaties and conventions. Drawing on the evidence of such international processes, the topic of verification turns out to be rather more complex than might initially be assumed. Issues that, at one level, appear narrowly technical and specific to the forest sector raise broader questions about political structures and relationships, and forms of public accountability. The paper discusses the implications of this, and identifies a number of principles of verification systems design.
David Brown	November 2005
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers: making the case for forestry ODI Forestry Briefing 7
This paper argues that forestry coverage is limited within most Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. There is also little exploration of the links between poverty reduction strategies and sector processes, such as national forest programmes. It is therefore unlikely that forestry issues will appear high on the national political agenda, which is now much influenced by the poverty reduction debate. This may affect budgetary allocations to the sector, and reduce the opportunities for cross-sectoral coordination. The contribution that forestry can make to poverty reduction has to be better understood and then communicated effectively in national policy circles. Sustainable forest management can probably play only a minor role in a growth-orientated, nationally accountable poverty reduction strategy. Yet through tenurial reform forests have the potential to provide significant, long lasting benefits for the rural poor.
Neil Bird and and Chris Dickson	March 2005
A Review of the Multi-Sectoral Forest Protection Committees in the Philippines ODI Forestry Briefing 6
Accelerating forest destruction in the Philippines led, in the post-Marcos era, to some major reforms in forest governance and management. A participatory approach to forest monitoring was adopted, involving the establishment of ‘Multi-Sectoral Forest Protection Committees’ (MFPCs). These provided a means to involve civil society and other concerned parties in a programme that aimed both to conserve and protect the forests and improve the livelihoods of the people. This paper discusses how this new governance strategy responded to the pressing problems in forestry and, in so doing, provides lessons which may be applied to other forest settings.
Rex Victor O. Cruz and Maricel A. Tapia	February 2005
How Important is Bushmeat Consumption in South America: Now and in the Future? ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 11
Between 5 to 8 million people in South America rely regularly on bushmeat as a source of protein in their diets. This represents only 1.4 to 2.2% of the total continental population, but these people are likely to be some of the poorest in the region. In terms of its contributions to the overall supply of meat in the region, bushmeat would appear to have very little importance. The future importance of bushmeat will depend on two factors: the economic growth of the South American economies and the ability of the livestock and fishery sectors to supply affordable protein. If both of these factors are positive over the next time period, it is suggested that bushmeat will further reduce in importance both in terms of the number of people who consume such meat and the total quantity of meat consumed. Improvement in people’s livelihoods in the Amazon region might well reduce bushmeat consumption and hence hunting pressures. However, the limitations in the data available on consumption patterns and changing preferences over time suggest a need for caution on the likely future scenarios.
Jonathan Rushton, Rommy Viscarra, Cecilia Viscarra, Frederick Basset, Rene Baptista, David Brown	February 2005
Forest Product Sale as Financial Insurance: Evidence from Honduran Smallholders ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 10
How do earnings from the sale of forest products help smallholders cope with unexpected cash needs? This paper investigates the conditions under which forest-dwelling families in the Honduran rain forest turn to forest products given that they often have other means to self-insure against illness, crop loss and other misfortunes. The study suggests that the sale of forest products offers an important fall-back during hard times, and is particularly important for young, land- and labour-poor households who may have few other ways of coping with financial crises. A number of recommendations for conservation and development policy follow from these findings.
Kendra McSweeney	January 2005
Forest Law Enforcement & Governance: The role of independent monitors in the control of forest crime ODI Forestry Briefing 5
Illegal logging is an issue of major national and international concern. Combating illegal logging depends on effective enforcement operations to ensure compliance and identify forest crime. Independent monitors have an important role in ‘monitoring the monitors’ and verifying legality. This briefing paper examines the part that external agencies can play in this work. Drawing on a number of recent experiences, consideration is given to the way in which independent monitoring might be structured, and some of the issues which need to be borne in mind when decisions are made as to what forms of monitoring to deploy.
David Brown, Cecilia Luttrell with Anne Casson, Rex Cruz and Tim Formeté	June 2004
Captive Breeding of wild species--a sceptical view of the prospects ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 9
There is interest in wildlife farming in South America, but the underlying objectives are unclear. The market for bushmeat in South America is limited and unlikely to grow rapidly. The justification in terms of satisfying a growing demand is therefore lacking. There also seems to be confusion between the aims of domestication for meat production and animal conservation. This paper will present two issues of importance: the costs of producing meat in wildlife farms, and a framework for policy makers on how to react to initiatives promoting wildlife farming for meat production. The first of these issues is largely South America-specific; the second should be directly applicable in other regions of the world.
Jonathan Rushton, Rommy Viscarra, Cecilia Viscarra, Frederick Basset, Rene Baptista, Corsino Huallata and David Brown	2004
Bushmeat Hunters and Secondary Traders: making the distinction for livelihood improvement ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 8
The sale of bushmeat has been referred to as both a ‘safety net’ and ‘stepping stone to greater prosperity’ for households at the lowest end of the income scale. This paper proposes a closer look at the local bushmeat economy in order to understand how livelihood strategies vary between those involved. Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) tend to focus on the suppression of commercial bushmeat hunting whilst encouraging alternative incomes for hunters. Based on anthropological research undertaken in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon, the paper looks at the economic behaviour of different local ‘hunter types’ as well as the role played by the local non-hunter bushmeat traders, proposing a more targeted approach to conservation and development activities relating to the bushmeat economy.
Hilary Solly	2004
The Bushmeat Commodity Chain: patterns of trade sustainability in a mature urban market in West Africa ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 7
This paper explores the structure and sustainability of a bushmeat commodity chain supplying the city of Takoradi in Ghana
Guy Cowlishaw, Samantha Mendleson and J. Marcus Rowcliffe	June 2004
Wild Meat Harvest and Trade in Liberia: managing biodiversity, economic and social impacts ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 6
This paper looks at the biodiversity, economic and social impacts of the bushmeat trade and harvest in Liberia.
Reginald Hoyt	April 2004
Barren Ground Caribou Co-Management in the Eastern Canadian Arctic: Lessons for Bushmeat management ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 5
This paper reviews the history of caribou co-management and discusses what this can tell us about the possibility of sustainable bushmeat management.
Andrew Hurst	April 2004
The bushmeat trade and fishing licence agreements in West Africa ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 4
This paper discusses the relationship between fishing licence agreements and bushmeat demand in West Africa.
Ian Watson and Justin Brashares	March 2004
Contribution of forest insects to food security and forest conservation: The example of caterpillars in Central Africa ODi Wildlife Policy Briefing 3
This paper examines the food potential of edible insects, and the implications for development policy.
Paul Vantomme, Daniela Göhler and François N'Deckere-Ziangba	January 2004
Good Governance: What can we learn from the Forest Sector? Group paper
This paper examines some of the key elements of good governance including transparent and equitable relationships between stakeholders, public accountability and participatory decision-making. It takes as an example the forest sector, which has made surprising gains in its application of good governance ideas. Forestry's inclusive focus, linking the global to the national and local; the centrality of issues of tenure and collective rights; and its importance in rural livelihoods, all reinforce the linkages between good governance, public accountability and poverty alleviation. The impact of improving governance is evident at several levels: decentralisation has changed the balance of power and decision-making between central government and the periphery; relationships between government and civil society have benefited as donor-promoted participation has created significant space for civil society voices to be heard; and new models are being developed for relationships within civil society and particularly within communities.
David Brown, Kathrin Schreckenberg, Gill Shepherd and Adrian Wells, with Cecilia Luttrell and Neil Bird	2003
Bushmeat and Poverty Alleviation: Implications for Development Policy ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 2
The paper discusses agruments for the inclusion of bushmeat in considerations of poverty alleviation, economic growth and good governance policies.
David Brown	November 2003
Wild resources and livelihoods of poor households in the Democratic Republic Congo ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing 1
This paper outlines research on the links between poverty and wild food use in a poor community of Congolese farming households.
Emmanuel de Merode, Katherine Homewood & Guy Cowlishaw	November 2003
Making Environmental Management more responsive to local needs: Decentralisation and evidence-based policy in Ghana ODI Forestry Briefing 3
This paper reports on research in Ghana’s Brong-Ahafo Region concerning the effects of democratic decentralisation on management of the natural environment, particularly forest resources. It argues that, despite nominal decentralisation, environmental policy remains largely unresponsive to rural interests. The paper considers the types of interventions which could enhance the flow of information between rural dwellers and policy makers so as to strengthen local-level influence.
David Brown and Kojo Amanor	April 2003
From supervising 'subjects' to supporting 'citizens': recent developments in community forestry in Asia and Africa ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 75
Major investments have been made in recent decades in the development of community forestry. Drawing on two contrasting cases - Nepal (multiple purpose, relatively low value upland forests) and Cameroon (humid lowland forests of high commercial value) - this paper argues that policy development has involved many unknowns, necessitating a learning process orientation and considerable flexibility. This involves substantial cost, but the benefits may be significant, as regards both rural livelihoods and the proper husbandry of hitherto under-managed resources.
David Brown, Yam Malla, Kate Schrekenberg and Oliver Springate-Baginski	2002
Negotiating Partnerships for Governance Reform: the Draft Code of Conduct for Forest Sector Development Cooperation ODI Forestry Briefing 2
This paper reviews experience with the 2001 Draft Code of Conduct for Forest Sector Development Cooperation. The Code aims to help donors engage more effectively with the institutional and policy contexts affecting forests, and to shift the governance agenda from conditionality to positive incentives for change.
Adrian Wells, Kate Schreckenberg, Tomi Tuomasjukka, Bernd-Markus Liss, Andy Roby and Tapani Oksanen	July 2002
Forestry as an Entry Point for Governance Reform ODI Forestry Briefing 1
Tropical forestry provides a useful entry point for governance programmes. The very factors which make it a challenging sector for development assistance commend it also as a crucible for governance reform: its inclusive focus, linking the global to the national and local; the high levels of income and other benefits which it generates; its local fiscal base; the centrality of issues of tenure and collective rights; and its importance in rural livelihoods, all reinforce the linkages between good governance, public accountability and poverty alleviation. Ensuring that the forest sector fulfils this brief is a major challenge not just to host country governments but also to the donor community.
David Brown, Gill Shepherd, Kate Schreckenberg and Adrian Wells	April 2002
What's special about wildlife management in forests? Concepts and models of rights-based management, with recent evidence from West-Central Africa ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 44
Wildlife consumption is an integral part of the livelihood and trade patterns of many peoples in the developing world, and highly valued by them. Yet to date the dominant models of wildlife management in areas of high and allegedly unsustainable consumptive use have favoured the exclusion of the users from the resource and the denial of its local values. This gives little incentive to rural dwellers to manage wildlife sustainably. Innovative strategies are required to enhance the rights of the resource users and to increase their entitlements to appropriate the benefits of wildlife for themselves. There has been little success in devising these outside areas with high tourist potential, but experience in other natural resource sectors may provide useful pointers.
David Brown, Stephen Cobb, Amar Inamda	1999
Participatory biodiversity conservation: rethinking the strategy in the low tourist potential areas of tropical Africa ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 33
Converting international interest in biodiversity conservation into a positive development strategy represents a major challenge for governments and the donor community. While defensive strategies in line with the ‘fines and fences’ approach are now widely rejected, attempts to provide positive incentives through alternative income generating strategies have not proven very effective. The way forward is increasingly seen to lie in the consolidation of existing livelihoods through the integration of biological and socio-economic information supported by efforts to increase local management capacity.
David Brown	1998
Shifting Cultivators as agents of deforestation: assessing the evidence ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 29
Increasing concern on two fronts - the international environmental movement and growing interest in biodiversity conservation - has brought shifting cultivation back into the foreground of rural development forestry. Opinions remain divided as to the part that shifting cultivation plays in accounting for the high levels of deforestation in the tropics. While it is viewed in some quarters as a major cause of tropical deforestation, recent research suggests that the reality is often more complex, and that explanations for deforestation must be sought in a variety of factors, many of which should be placed at the door of governments and international capital rather than of shifting cultivators.
David Brown and Kate Schreckenberg	1998
Indonesia and the 1997-98 El Niño: fire problems and long-term solutions ODI Natural Resource Perspectives 28
The 1997-98 El Niño is among the strongest recorded and low rainfall in Indonesia set the conditions for widespread fires. At the same time, it was clearer during this particular El Niño than it had been in the past that many fires were being deliberately set. They must be understood in the context of competing land-claims from government and private companies on the one hand, and local people with customary rights to land on the other. The 1997 El Niño is the first in which the resources of Land Satellite imagery and the Internet were harnessed to demonstrate quite clearly where the fires were taking place, and why.
Gill Shepherd and Neil Byron	1998