Background
How does research contribute to policy? Traditionally, the link between research findings and policy processes has been viewed as a linear process, whereby a set of research findings is shifted from the 'research sphere' over to the 'policy sphere', and then has some impact on policy-makers' decisions. This traditional view is now being questioned. It is no longer assumed that research influences policy in a one-way process (the linear model), or that there is a clear divide between researchers and policy-makers (the two communities model). Instead, literature on the research-policy link is now moving towards a more dynamic and complex view that emphasises a two-way process between research and policy, shaped by multiple relations and reservoirs of knowledge. This shift reflects the fact that the subject area has generated greater interest in the past few years. However, there is still a limited number of case studies, and it is often difficult to explain why some policies become evidence-based while others seem to remain evidence-averse.

In order to improve understanding and awareness in this area, RAPID has developed both a conceptual framework and collected a number of case studies. The traditional question could be phrased: 'How can research be transported from the research to the policy sphere?' Now, however, the question concerns research uptake pathways: 'Why are some of the ideas that circulate in the research/policy networks picked up and acted on, while others are ignored and disappear?' The answer to this seems to lie in a combination of several determining influences, which can broadly be divided into three areas: (1) Political context, (2) Evidence, and (3) Links. In addition, the ongoing work has shown that a fourth area is crucial, namely: (4) External factors. This conceptual framework has been applied to fifty short case studies from around the world (ODI Working Paper 213), and four in-depth case studies for the edited volume Bridging Research and Policy in Development; Evidence and the Change Process.

The Problem

The Policy Process: 'The whole life of policy is a chaos of purposes and accidents. It is not at all a matter of the rational implementation of the so-called decisions through selected strategies' - Edward Clay, 1984

Relevance: 'Most policy research on African agriculture is irrelevant to agricultural and overall economic policy in Africa' - Steve Were Omamo, 2003

Policy Uptake: policymakers 'seem to regard "research" as the opposite of "action" rather than the opposite of "ignorance".' - Martin Surr, 2002

Cost Effectiveness of Donor Resources: 'Donor countries spend over US$2bn annually on development research. Is this value for money?' - RAPID Programme, 2003

Lessons
Based on over five years of theoretical and case study research, ODI's Research and Policy in Development programme has developed a simple analytical framework and practical tools that can help researchers to make better use of research-based evidence in development policy and practice. For this to happen more effectively researchers need to do three things:

• First, they need to develop a detailed understanding of i) the policymaking process - what are the key influencing factors, and how do they relate to each other? ii) the nature of the evidence they have, or hope to get - is it credible, practical and operationally useful? and iii) all the other stakeholders involved in the policy area - who else can help to get the message across?
• Second, they need to develop an overall strategy for their work - identify political supporters and opponents, keep an eye out for, and be able to react to policy windows, ensure the evidence is credible and practically useful, and build coalitions with like-minded groups.
• Third, they need to be entrepreneurial - get to know, and work with the policymakers, build long term programmes of credible research, communicate effectively, use participatory approaches, identify key networkers and salesmen and use shadow networks.

Further resources
Click on the links below for summaries and further details of publications:

• Bridging Research and Policy in International Development: An Analytical and Practical Framework. John Young and Julius Court, RAPID Briefing Paper 1, October 2004
• Bridging Research and Policy in Development: Evidence and the Change Process. Edited by Julius Court, Ingie Hovland and John Young, ITDG Publishing
  This edited volume contains four in-depth case studies which are also available individually in Working Paper format:
  • The PRSP Initiative: Multilateral Policy Change and the Relative Role of Research. Karin Christiansen with Ingie Hovland, ODI Working Paper 216, August 2003
    
  • How the Sphere Project Came into Being: A Case Study of Policy-making in the Humanitarian Aid Sector and the Relative Influence of Research. Margie Buchanan-Smith, ODI Working Paper 215, July 2003
    
  • Animal Health Care in Kenya: The Road to Community-Based Animal Health Service Delivery. John Young (ODI), Julius Kajume (DVS Kenya) & Jacob Wanyama (ITDG Kenya), ODI Working Paper 214, May 2003
    
  • Sustainable Livelihoods: A Case Study of the Evolution of DFID Policy. William Solesbury, ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice, Queen Mary, University of London, ODI Working Paper 217, June 2003
• Bridging Research and Policy: An Annotated Bibliography. Maja de Vibe, Ingie Hovland and John Young, ODI Working Paper 174, September 2002
• Bridging Research and Policy: Context, Evidence and Links. Emma Crewe (UCL) and John Young (ODI), ODI Working Paper 173, June 2002
• Bridging Research and Policy: Insights from 50 Case Studies. Julius Court and John Young, ODI Working Paper 213, August 2003
• Bridging Research and Policies in Developing Countries: Insights from 50 Case Studies. Julius Court and John Young Presentation at UK Development Studies Association Annual Meeting 2003, Glasgow, 10-12 September 2003
• Does Evidence Matter? An ODI Meeting Series Monograph, October 2004
• Global Knowledge Networks and International Development. Edited by Diane Stone (University of Warwick) and Simon Maxwell
• Researchers and NGOs: Working Together. Simon Maxwell and Julius Court, UK feature article in BOND Newsletter, November 2004
• SDC's Human Rights and Rule of Law Guidance Documents: Influence, Effectiveness and Relevance within SDC, Independent Evaluation Report 2004/1. Laure-Hélène Piron and Julius Court, March 2004
• Bridging Research and Policy: Towards Pro-Poor Policy and Practice? Presentation on Needs, Evidence and Pro-poor Policy Julius Court, 'Providing Demand' Workshop, Leiden, 10-12 May 2004.
• Development Studies Association Annual Conference 2004 - London

Relevant projects

• PPA Outcome 1 Civil Society Partnerships Programme: A new programme designed to promote improved contribution by CSOs to pro-poor national and international development policies.
  
  • Civil Society Organisations Partnership Programme Call for Short Case Studies: As part of a new programme, ODI is looking for short case studies on the topic of Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), Evidence and Policy Influence.
    
  • Networks Study: A review of existing knowledge on how CSOs use networks. The first part of the project includes a literature review: 'Networks and policy processes in international development' (Perkin & Court)
    
  • Campaigning Organisation Study: A review of current knowledge about how campaigning organisations influence policy and their use of research-based evidence.
    
  • Evidence-Based Policy, Lessons from the UK: A study to identify lessons from evidence-based policy-making (EBP) in the UK which may be valuable to CSOs from developing countries.
    
  • International review of CSO impact on policy: A comparative review of civil society impact on policy, building on current CIVICUS Civil Society Index (CSI) project in 60 countries.
    
  • ODI Case Studies: A series of short authoritative and evidence-based papers (2,500 words) based on existing knowledge and public documents which illustrate how CSOs have contributed to policy processes across a particular sector or theme (eg PRSPs, Chronic Poverty, Food Policy, Budgets).
    
• Mapping the Policy Process in Eastern Europe: A project mapping the policy process in Eastern Europe through mentoring the LGI Policy Fellowship Programme. (R0158: November 2003)
  
• HIV/AIDS: Bridging Research and Policy: A project to improve understanding about the key determinants of policy change regarding HIV/AIDS. (November 2003)
  
• SDC Policy Documents Evaluation: Evaluating the impact of policy guidance documents within the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and partner agencies (P0166: April - August 2003)
  
• Bridging Research and Policy (ODI): Running alongside the GDN work, this project will develop a framework for, and undertake 3 case studies of research-policy linkages (April 2002 - March 2003)
  
• Bridging Research and Policy (GDN): Having helped to design it, ODI has been contracted to coordinate the establishment and first year of the Global Development Network's Bridging Research and Policy Project. (January 2002 - March 2001)
  
• Delivering Quality Services, Indonesia: A draw-down contract to provide intermittent support to the DFID-funded, Delivering Quality Services project. (August 2001 - March 2002)
  
• Strengthening links between research and policy: Preparation of fundable proposals for a Bridging Research and Policy project for the Global Development Network. (July 2000)

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